Ada Rautan Wajahmu Dalam Setiap Helai Napasku

Aku melangkah
Menyusuri bidakan waktu
Mencoba menggapai asa
Untuk melupakanmu

Kehangatan pancaran sorotan matamu
Menyerpih di persimpangan
Kala kau torehkan sayatan luka
Memerih jiwa menusuk sukma ku

Kau benamkan ku dalam keterpurukan
Kau tanam benih - benih kebencian
Dan tumbuh menjadi tanaman kehampaan ku

Namun apalah daya
Jeritan hati ini terlalu menikam balutan sukma
Kerinduan ini terlalu mengharu biru
Dan rautan wajahmu selalu ada dalam setiap helai napasku

Wahai belahan jiwa curahan hati ku
Masih adakah secuil kenangan manis kita
Dalam ingatanmu di setiap helaian rintikan gerimis yang terkadang menghapus saputan kenangan.
-.-
Nb : request puisi ini diminta oleh Putri reina lewat Sms. maaf yah kalau karya ku masih sederhana tidak seperti puisi ciptaan anda. ^_^

Can We Recreate The Past ( Puisi Karya Natalie84 )

Fear abandoned love
Allocating a pessimistic stance
Causing my only escape from reality
To flee with my heart in hand
Today, I beg for a second chance

The envious word on the street
Brought me to my defeat
Leaving me sad and alone
Upon the tears of my pillow
And a soul filled with sorrow

I'm relinquishing the whispers
Bellowing from behind
I'm blind to their line of attack
Today, I'm reaching for the only future
My mind has dreamed of
Day after day, week after week
For months on end

Time should have been my healer
But still I daydream
Of what could have been
The smile upon my face
Shined for all to see
Yet, I was the only one
Who cried to be free

Companion number one
Number two, number three
I'm sick of all the disastrous attempts
Relationships won't last
As long as I yearn to reconcile my past
Today, this is about ME
This is about what I need
What I want and what I long for

My inclination of hope
And the thought of his arms
Wrapped tightly around my body
Keep my vision afloat
For his spirit alone
Would complete all of my dreams

I'm begging the heavens
To bless me with the opportunity
To prove I am ready
I'm ready to be what he needs of me
I am prepared to glorify
A good man to whom I wish
To love unto my dying day
-.-
Puisi ini karya Natalie84 dengan sumber http://www.best-love-poems.com

Sebait Kenangan Di Secarik Kertas Bangku Belakang

Sebuah tabir kenangan pernah tersibak
Melewati padanan waktu
Kita saling mencoba meremang senja
Melewati masa - masa terindah di bangku SMA

Aku mengenalmu
Lewat secarik kertas yang tertinggal di bangku belakang
Lalu kita saling merangakai baitan kata
Melawati bahasa hati belahan jiwa

Rasa itu kemudian mendekam di lubuk sanubari
Mengkristal hingga ke tepian jantung hati
Menaburkan selaksa warna titian pelangi
Membumbung tinggi hingga mencapai ujung pertiwi

Tapi mengapa ......
Kau masih saja ragu denganku
Kau masih saja menimang - nimang sebait nilai ketulusan
Hingga ku terkekang dalam penantian yang tak terujung terbataskan

Waktupun bergulir
Letih dan penat dalam penantian
Ku terima seseorang yg menebar asa dan buih - buih rasa
Walau sebenarnya hanya sekedar pengisi sebuah rongga kosong di jiwa ku

Wahai kau seorang yang selalu ku rindukan di setiap ketinggain malam ku
Ijinkanlah aku memasuki puri terdalam hati mu
Bersama kita menanam benih bulir bulir asmara
Hingga tumbuh pohon keabadian dari kemurnian cinta kita

-.-
Nb : request puisi ini diminta oleh AI lewat YM. maaf yah kalau karya ku masih sederhana tidak seperti puisi ciptaan anda. ^_^

Tertikam Sunyi

Aku mencari ruang
Pada sebuah harap yg tersesat
Mencari tempat berlabuh
Kala penat dan letih mulai menyumbat

Asa ku merentang
Bersama sayap - sayap yang terkadang terkepak
Mencari sebening celah sabda cipta
Membawa nya menyusuri setapak jalan yang terlewati

Jenuhku memenuhi puncak
Bosan ku menjulangi pendar pendar mentari
Dan saputan awan mendung
Memekatku dalam puncak kesunyian

Tapi Mengapa
Aku masih saja merasakan sepi di tengah kegaduhan
Aku masih saja merasakan sunyi di tengah keramaian

Teriakanku membumbung tinggi
Hingga sebatas nadir batas kemampuan

Tapi Mengapa
Aku masih saja merasakan sepi di tengah kegaduhan
Aku masih saja merasakan sunyi di tengah keramaian

Malam memekat
Teriakan ku pun ter cekat
Sebuah tangan mengambil pelepah tempat ku berteduh dari tetesan hujan

Tak ada yang mau perduli
Tak ada yang mau mengerti

Sepi ....
Sendiri .....
Tertikam sunyi ...
-.-

Nb :
Di karenakan beberapa kesibukanku yang mendesak di kuliah dan tempat pekerjaaan beberapa hari kemarin aku tidak memposting puisi.
Untuk itulah dengan ketulusan hati yang terdalam Saya mengucapkan permintaan maaf kepada yang merequest puisi lewat email, sms, YM dan shotbox di blogger ku karena terlambat memenuhi permintaannnya. semua permintaan request anda telah saya tampung dan akan saya coba buatkan ( Tapi maaf yah kalau puisi buatan saya masih jelek maklum masih belajar ^_^ )
Salam bagi semua nya dan terimakasih atas apresiasi anda di pada untaian kata dari aku masih mempunyai sepenggalan jiwa kotor ini. //^,^\\

nb : tuk putri reina dan feloveni ajari aku dunk menciptakan karya sebagus karya anda berdua " ^_^

Cinta ku Bertepuk Sebelah Tangan

Ku genggam nurani ku
Untuk titian hati mu
Ku raba jantung hati ku
dan ku gambar rautan wajahmu

Cinta ku padamu adalah cinta sesuci bayi
Tulus iklash tak ternoda
Dan merancak menggantung
Hingga ujung - jung palung samudera

Maka .......
Ku unggapkan tabir mimpi ku padamu
Ku tuangkan rongga - rongga asmara yang menyumbat sanubari ku
Hanya pada mu .... juwita hati ku

Namun apa daya
Ungkapan kemurnian ini tak terbalas
Dirimu terlalu angkuh menerima pendar pendar asmara ku
Dan aku pun terjatuh
Dalam keterpurukan dan kerinduan yang mencabik di setiap ketinggian malam

Cinta mungkin indah
Cinta mungkin juga kepahitan
Dan biarkan kini ku melangkah
Di jalan setapak yang tak tentu arah ... tanpa mu

Nb :
Special Request for Ricky Ramadhan. Nice to meet u ^_^

Selamat Ulang Tahun Sahabat Terbaikku

Sinar mentari menelusup melewati celah celah daun
Semilir angin datang membuai menyentuh mesra ujung ujung rerumputan
Serunai suara burung merdu berkicau mendendangkan doa keselamatan
Bunga - bunga pun merekah mewangi di setaman hati
Menyambut datang nya hari kebahagiaan

Hari ini .....
Kau pahatkan lagi dengan sebuah tinta emas waktu - waktu yang telah terlewati
Kau goreskan lagi sebuah nilai yang telah terselami
Dengan sebuah nilai dari makna ribuan pengalaman

Sahabatku .....
Kau adalah permata terindah dalam hidup ku
Kau adalah tempat ku bersandar dalam lelah penatku
Yang membimbingku melewati saputan awan mendung di jiwa ku

Kenangan manis kita selamanya akan mengabadi
Dan akan tepat mengharu biru
Dalam sulaman pintalan penopang sukma ku

Selamat bertambah sahabatku
Semoga bertambah pula pola pikirmu
Demi sebait nilai pendewasaan
Untuk kini, esok dan masa depan

Maka di hari terindah ini
Dengan sebuah ketulusan dari sanubari
Ijinkanlah aku mengucapkan
Selamat ulang tahun untuk mu sahabat terbaik dalam hidupku
-.-
nb :
(Ini puisi Request dari Iin melalui YM, sms dan email ) maaf yah karena tugas kuliahku lagi banyak baru sempet hari ini di posting pesenannya, semoga temannya yang ulang tahun tanggal 25 mei berbahagia yah ^_^)

Saved By The Moon

Seraut wajah
Berdiri ditengah persimpangan jalan
Sadar jalan itu masih jauh dan dia baru selesai setengah
Berfikir mampukah aku sampai pada arah dan tujuan?

Disela nafasnya yang terengah
Dia sejenak menolehkan mukanya kebelakang
Teringat semua rintangan yang membuatnya hampir menyerah
Berfikir mampukah aku sampai pada arah dan tujuan?

Disela keringat dan air mata yang belum mengering
Dia mengarahkan mukanya ke depan
Menerka rintangan apa lagi yang harus dia hadapi
Berfikir mampukah aku sampai pada arah dan tujuan?

Dalam keadaan antara sadar dan tidak
Karena begitu banyak luka di hati dan tubuhnya
Luka dari setengah perjalanannya
Yang mungkin bisa tersembuhkan atau tidak

Dia berangkat dengan berjuta mimpi
Berjuta mimpi yang akan ia dapat kan bila ia sanggup menggapainya
Mimpi akan hidup bersama orang yang ia cintai
Hidup bersamanya ketika mata terjaga sampai terpejam selamanya

Ditengah persimpangan jalan
Sempat ia menangis di tengah jalan itu
Tapi biarlah dia menangis...sampai terciptakan sebuah telaga bening
Di tepi keindahan cahaya pesona mata

Dulu..
Selalu ada seseorang yang dia cintai dan sayangi
Yang selalu setia menemani setiap jengkal langkah, setiap helaan nafas, setiap tetes air mata
Setiap tawa, setiap penat, setiap godaan, setiap rintangan, setiap kebenaran dan kesalahan

Dulu..
Tak pernah dia memikirkan begitu beratnya jalan yang dia tempuh
Karena...
Selalu ada seseorang yang dia cintai dan sayangi

Sekarang..
Dia menangis karena luka di hati nya tanpa mempedulikan luka di tubuhnya
Tapi bukan dan lagi bukan, tangis itu bukan tanda kelemahan
Tangis itu bukan berarti tanda dari sebuah kepengecutan

Sempat dia terlelap dan tertidur karena letih di tubuhnya
Dia terus mencoba memaksakan untuk bermimpi tentang betapa indah
Betapa bahagianya dia kalau bisa sampai di ujung perjalannya
Dia berusaha bahkan sampai memaksa sehingga dia malah tidak bermimpi apapun

Di iringi hambusan angin dan tetesan embun di pagi hari
Saat ia bangun dari tidur nya yang entah berapa lama ia tersadar
Kalau ia terus menyimpan luka dihati sampai membatu hati akan makin tersayat
Dia harus menyembuhkan luka dihatinya dan menatap lagi jalan di depannya

Andai saja kekasihnya masih disampingnya kini pasti dia tak akan seperih ini
Tetapi kekasihnya lah yang memahatkan rasa sakit itu meskipun disebelah pahatan
Kesakitan itu jelas-jelas terpahat nama kekasihnya yang sudah membatu sejak dulu
Dan setelah membuat pahatan rasa sakit itu kekasihnya mengambil jalan lain

Rasanya dia tidak akan sanggup melanjutkan perjalanannya
Karena kekasih yang dahulu adalah bintang dihatinya sudah tidak bersinar lagi
Namun ketika dia menatap bintang dilangit, yang terkadang terang dan redup
Tapi malam bukanlah malam kalau tanpa bintang

Dia masih punya rembulan untuk menemani perjalanannya
Meraih semua mimpi ketika dia akhirnya sampai pada arah dan tujuannya
Tanpa dia tahu bintang dihatinya akankah mau bersinar lagi meneranginya
Entah bersinar atau tidak bintang itu akan selalu ada dihatinya untuk selamanya

Kini dia yakin harus menyelesaikan sisa perjalanan ini
Kini dia yakin dia mampu menghabiskan sisa jalan itu
Kini dia yakin dengan rembulan di langit dan sebuah bintang dihati
Kini dia yakin karena bila bintang bintang ini bersinar sinarnya akan lebih terang daripada bulan

nb :
Puisi ini di buat oleh Mas Ekko dari Surabaya untuk Some one whose makes me from some thing to nothing dan di kirimkan ke email ku dan atas permintaan nya puisi ini di muat di blogger ini. Tq Yah bro atas partisipasinya ^_^

Kau Torehkan Sembilu Di Puri Terdalam Hatiku

Aku pernah memimpikan
Membangun sebiduk ruang dengan mu
Tempat kita menyatu dalam suka duka
Tempat kita bercengkrama hingga ajal menjelma

Rasa percaya ku mengabur
Menjadi keraguan - keraguan yang telah terkristal
Kala kau mainkan sumbu api pembakar sekam
Di belakang ku

Hatiku hancur terkeping - keping
Kau musnahkan sebening asa yang telah memekat di jiwa

Kini ku goyah
Menata bayang mencari tempat perlabuhan
Meramu sajak dalam kesendirian
Demi dirimu sang pujaan

Namun selalu ada pintu terbuka
Tempat kau bersandar kala kau terpuruk
Karena dirimu lah pelita hidup ku
Sinar penerang jiwa ku dalam meniti kekelaman hidup
-.-
nb :
Tuk Eko semoga belahan hati mu tidak mengulangi kembali kesalahnnya dan kembali bersandar dalam dekapan hangat cinta dari mu. take care yah bro ^_^

Adverdtising

AdSense is an ad serving program run by Google. Website owners can enroll in this program to enable text, image and, more recently, video advertisements on their sites. These ads are administered by Google and generate revenue on either a per-click or per-thousand-impressions basis. Google is also currently beta-testing a cost-per-action based service.

Google utilizes its search technology to serve ads based on website content, the user's geographical location, and other factors. Those wanting to advertise with Google's targeted ad system may sign up through AdWords. AdSense has become a popular method of placing advertising on a website because the ads are less intrusive than most banners, and the content of the ads is often relevant to the website.

Ada Sebentuk Kerinduan Si Pungguk di Balik Pendar Rembulan

Rembulan memucat pasi
Biasnya terselubung rarakan mega
Menggelapkan semesta
Meski hanya sekejap

Si pungguk mata nya pun memucat
Bergiliran menghadir memusatkan asa dan cipta
Berurutan tak terpisah
Menunggu bayang rembulan untuk menghadir

Sang pungguk menunggu pendar purnama
Menunggu batas kerinduan yang kian memuncak
Merindukan seraut wajah belahan jiwa
Hingga mengabadi hingga sepanjang jarak ombak berbuih

Rembulan pun menghadir
Memetakan batas - batas keangkuhan
Sang Pungguk berdiri lirih menghiba jasad temaram pesona
Untuk sekedar menghampiri kelopak mata sang rembulan

Sang rembulan hanya menoleh sesaat
Dan langsung memalingkan wajah nya
Tak terima dirinya di kagumi si pungguk yang buruk rupa
Dan langsung terbang melayang ke jagat raya

Segala kesabaran dan perjuangan
Tak semudah segala asa terhadirkan
Dan sang pungguk pun kembali menantikan
Kehadiran rembulan meski mungkin hanya sebatas impian

Sang pungguk sendiri tahu diri
Sang rembulan hanyalah sebuah oase yang tersamarkan di tengah padang pasir kering kerontang

Pemuja Rahasia

Bayang bayang mu hadir di sela deretan teks
Yang ku kirimkan lewat deretan teks yang mengalir bersama semilir angin
Untuk mengungkapkan sebait rasa
Akan sebuah puji dan puja

Malam ku adalah malam selaksa warna
Ketika kau balas rentetan kata ku
Membumbung tinggi hingga alam nirwana
Menjewantah tak terkira dalam sukma

Kerinduan yang memuncak
Keinginan untuk berjumpa
Mengharu birukan sebening jiwa
Namun jauh jarak untuk tergapaikan

Kau ........
Yang menorehkan sebuah tinta dalam jantung hati ku
Membuat malam - malam ku selalu merindu
Akan kehadiranmu dalam dekapan malam ku

Oh idolaku
Biarkan ku basuh nama mu dalam palung hatiku
Dan menggetarkan
Hingga waktu perjumpaaan kita terwujudkan

-.-

Nb :
Toek Pingkan 1906 semoga kau senang karena tercapai request nya

Ada Bulir Cinta Di Antara Balutan Persahabatan Kita

Kita pernah duduk bersama
Meremang petang melihat siluet senja
Melihat Cakrawala mega
Sebelum sang mentari kembali keperaduan

Saat - saat kebersamaan
Suka dan duka yang menyemai perjalanan hidup
Menorehkan sebait kenangan terindah
Yang tak mudah terhapus oleh pendar sinar mentari pagi ketika menyinari untaian embun

Kebersamaan itu
Telah meninggalkan sebuah makna terdalam dalam palung rasa
Menilam cahaya pendar - pendar jiwa
Dan aku terpuruk dalam linangan bahasa asmara

Wahai sahabat ku ???
Salahkah aku jika mencintai mu
Salahkah jika nama mu telah terpahat dalam jantung hati ku
Dan mengabadi sepanjang jarak ombak berbuih

Wahai sahabat ku
Kalam itu akan kembali terbuka
Sabda itu akan kembali termuara
Dan biarkan mengabadi hingga mata kita memejam abadi

Nb :
tuk Rohan, semoga juwita pujaan hati anda mendengar jeritan ketulusan hati anda ^_^
nice to meet u dan semoga sukses

Google Adsense ( news di ambil dari wikipedia.org )

AdSense

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Google Adsense)

Jump to: navigation, search

AdSense is an ad serving program run by Google. Website owners can enroll in this program to enable text, image and, more recently, video advertisements on their sites. These ads are administered by Google and generate revenue on either a per-click or per-thousand-impressions basis. Google is also currently beta-testing a cost-per-action based service.

Google utilizes its search technology to serve ads based on website content, the user's geographical location, and other factors. Those wanting to advertise with Google's targeted ad system may sign up through AdWords. AdSense has become a popular method of placing advertising on a website because the ads are less intrusive than most banners, and the content of the ads is often relevant to the website.

It currently uses JavaScript code to incorporate the advertisements into a participating site. If it is included on a site which has not yet been crawled by the Mediabot, it will temporarily display advertisements for charitable causes known as public service announcements (PSAs). (Note that the Mediabot is a separate crawler from the Googlebot that maintains Google's search index.)

Many sites use AdSense to monetize their content and some webmasters work hard to maximize their own AdSense income. They do this in three ways:

1. They use a wide range of traffic generating techniques including but not limited to online advertising.
2. They build valuable content on their sites which attracts AdSense ads which pay out the most when they get clicked.
3. They use copy on their websites that encourage clicks on ads. Note that Google prohibits people from using phrases like "Click on my AdSense ads" to increase click rates. Phrases accepted are "Sponsored Links" and "Advertisements".

The source of all AdSense income is the AdWords program which in turn has a complex pricing model based on a Vickrey second price auction, in that it commands an advertiser to submit a sealed bid (not observable by competitors). Additionally, for any given click received, advertisers only pay one bid increment above the second-highest bid.

Contents [hide] 1 History 2 AdSense for feeds 3 AdSense for search 4 How AdSense works 5 Abuse 6 Criticism 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit] History

The underlying technology behind AdSense was derived originally from WordNet and Simpli, a company started by the founder of Wordnet — George A. Miller — and a number of professors and graduate students from Brown University, including James A. Anderson, Jeff Stibel and Steve Reiss.^[1] A variation of this technology utilizing Wordnet was developed by Oingo, a small search engine company based in Santa Monica founded in 1998.^[2] Oingo focused on semantic searches rather than brute force string searches.^[3] Oingo changed its name to Applied Semantics, which was then bought by Google for $102 million in April 2003, to replace a similar system being developed in house.^[4]

[edit] AdSense for feeds

In May 2005, Google unveiled AdSense for feeds, a version of AdSense that runs on RSS and Atom feeds that have more than 100 active subscribers. According to the Official Google Blog, "advertisers have their ads placed in the most appropriate feed articles; publishers are paid for their original content; readers see relevant advertising — and in the long run, more quality feeds to choose from".

AdSense for feeds works by inserting images into a feed. When the image is displayed by the reader/browser, Google writes the ad content into the image that it returns. The ad content is chosen based on the content of the feed surrounding the image. When the user clicks the image, he or she is redirected to the advertiser's site in the same way as regular AdSense ads.

[edit] AdSense for search

A companion to the regular AdSense program, AdSense for search lets website owners place Google search boxes on their pages. When a user searches the web or the site with the search box, Google shares any ad revenue it makes from those searches with the site owner. However, only if the ads on the page are clicked, the publisher is paid. Adsense does not pay publishers for mere searches.

[edit] How AdSense works

Each time a visitor visits a page with an AdSense tag, a piece of JavaScript writes an iframe tag, whose src attribute includes the URL of the page. Google's servers use a cache of the page for the URL or the keywords in the URL itself to determine a set of high-value keywords. (Some of the details are described in the AdSense patent.) If keywords have been cached already, ads are served for those keywords based on the AdWords bidding system.

[edit] Abuse

Some webmasters create sites tailored to lure searchers from Google and other engines onto their AdSense site to make money from clicks. These "zombie" sites often contain nothing but a large amount of interconnected, automated content (e.g.: A directory with content from the Open Directory Project, or scraper sites relying on RSS feeds for content). Possibly the most popular form of such "AdSense farms" are splogs ("spam blogs"), which are centered around known high-paying keywords. Many of these sites use content from other web sites, such as Wikipedia, to attract visitors. These and related approaches are considered to be search engine spam and can be reported to Google.

There have also been reports of Trojans engineered to produce fake Google ads that are formatted to look like legitimate ones. The Trojan Horse apparently downloads itself onto an unsuspecting computer through a web page and then replaces the original ads with its own set of malicious ads.^[5]

[edit] Criticism

Due to concerns about click fraud, Google AdSense has been criticized by some Search engine optimization firms as a large source of what Google calls "invalid clicks" in which one company clicks on a rival's search engine ads to drive up its costs.^[6] Some publishers have been blocked by Google, complaining that little justification or transparency was provided.^[7]

To help prevent click fraud, publishers can choose from a number of click tracking programs. These programs will display detailed information about the visitors who click on the AdSense advertisements. Publishers can use that data to determine if they've been a victim of click fraud or not. There are a number of such commercial scripts available for purchase. An open source alternative is AdLogger.

Because AdSense adverts use non-xhtml compliant methods to display the advertising blocks they will break xhtml strict pages. This is due to the use of the document.write method, which is deprecated in favour of DOM manipulation in xhtml, and the use of the iframe element, which is deprecated because it ties markup to presentation. This can be worked around by keeping the AdSense code in a separate html4 file served as text/html and including this in the application/xml+xhtml file using the object element.

Google has also come under fire for allowing AdWords advertisers to abuse trademarks. In 2004, Google started allowing advertisers to bid on any search terms, including the trademarks of their competitors.^[8]

The payment terms for AdSense customers have also been criticized.^[9] Google withholds payment until an account reaches US$100 ^[10], but many small content providers require a long time - years in many cases - to build up this much AdSense revenue. These pending payments are recorded on Google's balance sheet as "accrued revenue share". ^[11] At the close of its 2006 fiscal year, the sum of all these small debts amounted to a little over US $370 million - cash that Google is able to invest but which effectively belongs to its customers. ( wikipedia.org )

The History Of Computer ( News from wikipedia.org )

Computer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the IEEE magazine see Computer (magazine).
The NASA Columbia Supercomputer.
The NASA Columbia Supercomputer.

A computer is a machine for manipulating data according to a list of instructions.

Computers take numerous physical forms. Early electronic computers were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers. [1] Today, computers can be made small enough to fit into a wrist watch and be powered from a watch battery. Society has come to recognize personal computers and their portable equivalent, the laptop computer, as icons of the information age; they are what most people think of as "a computer". However, the most common form of computer in use today is by far the embedded computer. Embedded computers are small, simple devices that are often used to control other devices—for example, they may be found in machines ranging from fighter aircraft to industrial robots, digital cameras, and even children's toys.
A computer in a wristwatch.
A computer in a wristwatch.

The ability to store and execute programs makes computers extremely versatile and distinguishes them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: Any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, computers with capability and complexity ranging from that of a personal digital assistant to a supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tasks as long as time and storage capacity are not considerations.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History of computing
* 2 Stored program architecture
o 2.1 Programs
o 2.2 Example
* 3 How computers work
o 3.1 Control unit
o 3.2 Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
o 3.3 Memory
o 3.4 Input/output (I/O)
o 3.5 Multitasking
o 3.6 Multiprocessing
o 3.7 Networking and the Internet
* 4 Further topics
o 4.1 Hardware
o 4.2 Software
o 4.3 Programming languages
o 4.4 Professions and organizations
* 5 See also
* 6 Notes
* 7 References

History of computing

Main article: History of computing

The Jacquard loom was one of the first programmable devices.
The Jacquard loom was one of the first programmable devices.

It is difficult to define any one device as the earliest computer. The very definition of a computer has changed and it is therefore impossible to identify the first computer. Many devices once called "computers" would no longer qualify as such by today's standards.

Originally, the term "computer" referred to a person who performed numerical calculations (a human computer), often with the aid of a mechanical calculating device. Examples of early mechanical computing devices included the abacus, the slide rule and arguably the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism (which dates from about 150-100 BC). The end of the Middle Ages saw a re-invigoration of European mathematics and engineering, and Wilhelm Schickard's 1623 device was the first of a number of mechanical calculators constructed by European engineers.

However, none of those devices fit the modern definition of a computer because they could not be programmed. In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom that used a series of punched paper cards as a template to allow his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.

In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer that he called "The Analytical Engine".[2] Due to limited finance, and an inability to resist tinkering with the design, Babbage never actually built his Analytical Engine.

Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the US Census in 1890 by tabulating machines designed by Herman Hollerith and manufactured by the Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation, which later became IBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of technologies that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers had begun to appear: the punched card, boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve) and the teleprinter.

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.
Defining characteristics of five first operative digital computers Computer Shown working Binary Electronic Programmable Turing complete
Zuse Z3 May 1941 Yes No By punched film stock Yes (1998)
Atanasoff-Berry Computer Summer 1941 Yes Yes No No
Colossus December 1943 / January 1944 Yes Yes Partially, by rewiring No
Harvard Mark I/IBM ASCC 1944 No No By punched paper tape No
ENIAC 1944 No Yes Partially, by rewiring Yes
1948 No Yes By Function Table ROM Yes


A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is difficult (Shannon 1940). Notable achievements include:
EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program (von Neumann) architecture.
EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program (von Neumann) architecture.

* Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the world's first operational computer.
* The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tube based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
* The secret British Colossus computer (1944), which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime codes.
* The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability.
* The US Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which used decimal arithmetic and was the first general purpose electronic computer, although it initially had an inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming.

Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture. This design was first formally described by John von Neumann in the paper "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC", published in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored program architecture commenced around this time, the first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM) or "Baby". However, the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was perhaps the first practical implementation of the stored program design. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but didn't see full-time use for an additional two years.

Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored program architecture, making it the single trait by which the word "computer" is now defined. By this standard, many earlier devices would no longer be called computers by today's definition, but are usually referred to as such in their historical context. While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture. The design made the universal computer a practical reality.
Microprocessors are miniaturized devices that often implement stored program CPUs.
Microprocessors are miniaturized devices that often implement stored program CPUs.

Vacuum tube-based computers were in use throughout the 1950s, but were largely replaced in the 1960s by transistor-based devices, which were smaller, faster, cheaper, used less power and were more reliable. These factors allowed computers to be produced on an unprecedented commercial scale. By the 1970s, the adoption of integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors such as the Intel 4004 caused another leap in size, speed, cost and reliability. By the 1980s, computers had become sufficiently small and cheap to replace simple mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. Around the same time, computers became widely accessible for personal use by individuals in the form of home computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer. In conjunction with the widespread growth of the Internet since the 1990s, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone and almost all modern electronic devices contain a computer of some kind.

Stored program architecture

Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming

The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that a list of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer and it will store them and carry them out at some time in the future.

In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to that point.

Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.

Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time—with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. For example:

mov #0,sum ; set sum to 0
mov #1,num ; set num to 1
loop: add num,sum ; add num to sum
add #1,num ; add 1 to num
cmp num,#1000 ; compare num to 1000
ble loop ; if num <= 1000, go back to 'loop'
halt ; end of program. stop running

Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in about a millionth of a second.[3]

However, computers cannot "think" for themselves in the sense that they only solve problems in exactly the way they are programmed to. An intelligent human faced with the above addition task might soon realize that instead of actually adding up all the numbers one can simply use the equation

1+2+3+...+n = {{n(n+1)} \over 2}

and arrive at the correct answer (500,500) with little work. [4] In other words, a computer programmed to add up the numbers one by one as in the example above would do exactly that without regard to efficiency or alternative solutions.

Programs
A 1970s punched card containing one line from a FORTRAN program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labelled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.
A 1970s punched card containing one line from a FORTRAN program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labelled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.

In practical terms, a computer program might include anywhere from a dozen instructions to many millions of instructions for something like a word processor or a web browser. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions every second and nearly never make a mistake over years of operation.

Large computer programs may take teams of computer programmers years to write and the probability of the entire program having been written completely in the manner intended is unlikely. Errors in computer programs are called bugs. Sometimes bugs are benign and do not affect the usefulness of the program, in other cases they might cause the program to completely fail (crash), in yet other cases there may be subtle problems. Sometimes otherwise benign bugs may be used for malicious intent, creating a security exploit. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design. [5]

In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode, the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions, the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from—each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer just as if they were numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.

While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and this technique was used with many early computers,[6] it is extremely tedious to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember—a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low-level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. This means that an ARM architecture computer (such as may be found in a PDA or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the machine language of an Intel Pentium or the AMD Athlon 64 computer that might be in a PC.[7]

Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and error prone. Therefore, most complicated programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the computer programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler.[8] Since high level languages are more abstract than assembly language, it is possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.

The task of developing large software systems is an immense intellectual effort. It has proven, historically, to be very difficult to produce software with an acceptably high reliability, on a predictable schedule and budget. The academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this problem.

Example
A traffic light showing red.
A traffic light showing red.

Suppose a computer is being employed to drive a traffic light. A simple stored program might say:

1. Turn off all of the lights
2. Turn on the red light
3. Wait for sixty seconds
4. Turn off the red light
5. Turn on the green light
6. Wait for sixty seconds
7. Turn off the green light
8. Turn on the yellow light
9. Wait for two seconds
10. Turn off the yellow light
11. Jump to instruction number (2)

With this set of instructions, the computer would cycle the light continually through red, green, yellow and back to red again until told to stop running the program.

However, suppose there is a simple on/off switch connected to the computer that is intended be used to make the light flash red while some maintenance operation is being performed. The program might then instruct the computer to:

1. Turn off all of the lights
2. Turn on the red light
3. Wait for sixty seconds
4. Turn off the red light
5. Turn on the green light
6. Wait for sixty seconds
7. Turn off the green light
8. Turn on the yellow light
9. Wait for two seconds
10. Turn off the yellow light
11. If the maintenance switch is NOT turned on then jump to instruction number 2
12. Turn on the red light
13. Wait for one second
14. Turn off the red light
15. Wait for one second
16. Jump to instruction number 11

In this manner, the computer is either running the instructions from number (2) to (11) over and over or it's running the instructions from (11) down to (16) over and over, depending on the position of the switch.[9]

How computers work

Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor

A general purpose computer has four main sections: the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were comprised of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.

Control unit

Main articles: CPU design and Control unit

The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) directs the various components of a computer. It reads and interprets (decodes) instructions in the program one by one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of control signals that operate the other parts of the computer.[10] Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.

A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.[11]
Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system.
Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system.

The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).

Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).

It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program - and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.

Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

Main article: Arithmetic logic unit

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.

The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc) and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").

Logic operations involve boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful both for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.

Superscalar computers contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the same time. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.

Memory

Main article: Computer storage

Magnetic core memory was popular main memory for computers through the 1960s until it was completely replaced by semiconductor memory.
Magnetic core memory was popular main memory for computers through the 1960s until it was completely replaced by semiconductor memory.

A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is up to the software to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers; either from 0 to 255 or -128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory as long as it can be somehow represented in numerical form. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. Since data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random access memory or RAM and read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM is erased when the power to the computer is turned off while ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the software required to perform the task may be stored in ROM. Software that is stored in ROM is often called firmware because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM by retaining data when turned off but being rewritable like RAM. However, flash memory is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM so its use is restricted to applications where high speeds are not required. [12]

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.

Input/output (I/O)

Main article: Input/output

Hard disks are common I/O devices used with computers.
Hard disks are common I/O devices used with computers.

I/O is the means by which a computer receives information from the outside world and sends results back. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include inputs like the keyboard and mouse, and outputs such as the display and printer. Hard disks, floppy disks and optical discs serve as both inputs and outputs. Computer networking is another form of I/O.

Practically any device that can be made to interface digitally may be used as I/O. The computer in the Engine Control Unit of a modern automobile might read the position of the pedals and steering wheel, the output of the oxygen sensor and devices that monitor the speed of each wheel. The output devices include the various lights and gauges that the driver sees as well as the engine controls such as the spark ignition circuits and fuel injection systems. In a digital wristwatch, the computer reads the buttons and causes numbers and symbols to be shown on the liquid crystal display.

Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.

Multitasking

Main article: Computer multitasking

While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn. One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.

Before the era of cheap computers, the principle use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.

Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly - in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. However, most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without unacceptable speed loss.

Multiprocessing

Main article: Multiprocessing

Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.
Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.

Some computers may divide their work between one or more separate CPUs, creating a multiprocessing configuration. Traditionally, this technique was utilized only in large and powerful computers such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. However, multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers have become widely available and are beginning to see increased usage in lower-end markets as a result.

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers.[13] They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of a the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.

Networking and the Internet

Main articles: Computer networking and Internet

Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet. The image above is proposed for deletion. See images and media for deletion to help reach a consensus on what to do.
Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet.
The image above is proposed for deletion. See images and media for deletion to help reach a consensus on what to do.

Computers have been used to coordinate information in multiple locations since the 1950s, with the US military's SAGE system the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.

In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the US began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

Further topics

Hardware

The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.
History of computing hardware First Generation (Mechanical/Electromechanical) Calculators Antikythera mechanism, Difference Engine, Norden bombsight
Programmable Devices Jacquard loom, Analytical Engine, Harvard Mark I, Z3
Second Generation (Vacuum Tubes) Calculators Atanasoff-Berry Computer
Programmable Devices ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I
Third Generation (Discrete transistors and SSI, MSI, LSI Integrated circuits) Mainframes System/360, BUNCH
Minicomputer PDP-8, PDP-11, System/32, System/36
Fourth Generation (VLSI integrated circuits) Minicomputer VAX, AS/400
4-bit microcomputer Intel 4004, Intel 4040
8-bit microcomputer Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80
16-bit microcomputer 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802
32-bit microcomputer 80386, Pentium, 68000, ARM architecture
64-bit microcomputer [14] x86-64, PowerPC, MIPS, SPARC
Embedded computer 8048, 8051
Personal computer Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer, Personal digital assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet computer, Wearable computer
Server class computer
Theoretical/experimental Quantum computer
Chemical computer
DNA computing
Optical computer
Other Hardware Topics Peripheral device (Input/output) Input Mouse, Keyboard, Joystick, Image scanner
Output Monitor, Printer
Both Floppy disk drive, Hard disk, Optical disc drive, Teleprinter
Computer busses Short range RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB
Long range (Computer networking) Ethernet, ATM, FDDI

Software

Software refers to parts of the computer that have no material form; programs, data, protocols, etc are all software. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes termed firmware to indicate that it falls into an area of uncertainty between hardware and software.
Computer software Operating system Unix/BSD UNIX System V, AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), FreeBSD, NetBSD, IRIX
GNU/Linux List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions
Microsoft Windows Windows 9x, Windows NT, Windows CE
DOS QDOS, PC-DOS, MS-DOS, FreeDOS
Mac OS Mac OS classic, Mac OS X
Embedded and real-time List of embedded operating systems
Experimental Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Library Multimedia DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL
Programming library C standard library
Data Protocol TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
File format HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG
User interface Graphical user interface (WIMP) Microsoft Windows, GNOME, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM
Text user interface Command line interface, shells
Other
Application Office suite Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database management system, Scheduling & Time management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software
Internet Access Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging
Design and manufacturing Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management
Graphics Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D computer graphics, Video editing, Image processing
Audio Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music
Software Engineering Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text Editor, Integrated development environment, Performance analysis, Revision control, Software configuration management
Educational Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator
Games Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive fiction
Misc Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package management systems, File manager

Programming languages

Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine language by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
Programming Languages Lists of programming languages Timeline of programming languages, Categorical list of programming languages, Generational list of programming languages, Alphabetical list of programming languages, Non-English-based programming languages
Commonly used Assembly languages ARM, MIPS, x86
Commonly used High level languages BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal
Commonly used Scripting languages JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl

Professions and organizations

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers. Following the theme of hardware, software and firmware, the brains of people who work in the industry are sometimes known irreverently as wetware or "meatware".
Computer-related professions Hardware-related Electrical engineering, Electronics engineering, Computer engineering, Telecommunications engineering, Optical engineering, Nanoscale engineering
Software-related Human-computer interaction, Information technology, Software engineering, Scientific computing, Web design, Desktop publishing, Sound recording and reproduction

The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
Organizations Standards groups ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C
Professional Societies ACM, ACM Special Interest Groups, IET, IFIP
Free/Open source software groups Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Software Foundation

See also
Look up Computer in
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* Computability theory
* Computer science
* Computing
* Computers in fiction
* Computer security and Computer insecurity
* List of computer term etymologies
* Virtualization

Notes

1. ^ In 1946, ENIAC consumed an estimated 174 kW. By comparison, a typical personal computer may use around 400 W; over four hundred times less. (Kempf 1961)
2. ^ The Analytical Engine should not be confused with Babbage's difference engine which was a non-programmable mechanical calculator.
3. ^ This program was designed for the PDP-11 minicomputer and shows some typical things a computer can do. All the text after the semicolons are comments for the benefit of human readers. These have no significance to the computer and are ignored. (Digital Equipment Corporation 1972)
4. ^ Attempts are often made to create programs that can overcome this fundamental limitation of computers. Software that mimics learning and adaptation is part of artificial intelligence.
5. ^ It is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.
6. ^ Even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code. Some minicomputers like the DEC PDP-8 could be programmed directly from a panel of switches. However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory.
7. ^ However, there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers. An x86-64 compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel 80486. This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.
8. ^ High level languages are also often interpreted rather than compiled. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly by another program called an interpreter.
9. ^ Although this is a simple program, it contains a software bug. If the traffic signal is showing red when someone switches the "flash red" switch, it will cycle through green once more before starting to flash red as instructed. This bug is quite easy to fix by changing the program to repeatedly test the switch throughout each "wait" period—but writing large programs that have no bugs is exceedingly difficult.
10. ^ The control unit's rule in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past. While the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Many computers include some instructions that may only be partially interpreted by the control system and partially interpreted by another device. This is especially the case with specialized computing hardware that may be partially self-contained. For example, EDVAC, the first modern stored program computer to be designed, used a central control unit that only interpreted four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.
11. ^ Instructions often occupy more than one memory address, so the program counters usually increases by the number of memory locations required to store one instruction.
12. ^ Flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out, making it less useful for heavy random access usage. (Verma 1988)
13. ^ However, it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware; usually individual computers connected by networks. These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years. (TOP500 2006)
14. ^ Most major 64-bit instruction set architectures are extensions of earlier designs. All of the architectures listed in this table existed in 32-bit forms before their 64-bit incarnations were introduced. ( wikipedia.org )

Adakah Ketulusan Cinta Dari Dunia Maya

Aliran kata ini mengalir
Melewati layar monitor yang menerang
Bunyi derik - derik dari alat penyampai pesan teks
Ku buka sebait kata salam

Rasa kekaguman
Puja dan puji yang mengharubirukan
Mengalir melewati pendaran bola mata
Seiring tetesan hujan yang mulai menderas

Namun ......
Itu hanyalah sebatas dunia maya
Sebuah tempat bagi beberapa pemimpi
Atau pun membunuh waktu yang terbuang

Ah mungkin aku terlalu naif menilai mu
Dan mungkin saja ketulusan itu akan terdapatkan
Dan biarkan jalinan kata ini tmengalir teruraikan
Bersama sebuah dunia tanpa batas jarak dan ruang

Ajari Aku Memaknai Hati mu

Kau coba bermain ruang
Lewat sorot mata setajam burung camar
Melewati nyiuran pohon kelapa
Dengan ribuan serapah yang meluas

Gemuruh ombak mendebur
Bersaur dengan sepuhan magenta siluet senja

Kau terdiam
Sambil menyentuh butiran - butiran pasir pantai
Namun aku tahu
Gelora amarah mencengkeram di sanubari mu

Ingin ku mendekat
Namun langkah ku tercekat
Sepenggalan jarak itu kadang terlalu menghalangi
Untuk sekedar melipur lara

Wahai gadis yang sedang berteruhkan duka
Ijinkan lah aku membasuh saputan awan mendung di rautan wajah mu
Agar seutas senyum itu kembali menghadir
Mengisi kembali lembaran hari hari ku

Maka ajarkan lah aku memaknai hati mu
Yang akan menemanimu ketika kau butuh tempat bersinggah
Yang akan menghiburmu ketika kau terpuruk
Dan menyediakan sebilah bidang bahu untuk kau bersandar

Walau aku tahu aku hanyalah sebagai tempat pelarian
^_^

nb : The sweet memories in pangandaran beach

Ketika Getar Cinta Datang Menyapa

Rasa itu ada
Di Batas kesadaranmu
Merayap melewati alur - alur keindahan
Dan menilam cahaya pendar purnama

Rasa itu ada
Ketika kau tersentuh pendar bola mata sang pujaan
Saling membaca bahasa jiwa
Dan menggoreskan nya hingga ke dalam sanubari

Rasa itu ada
Mengharu biru dan memerah saga emosi
Puncak kerinduan dan semangat ingin berjumpa
Menemui seseorang yang telah tersimpan di puri terdalam hati mu

Dan kita pun akan menjadi hilang kesadaran
Hingga mencoba menghitung butiran pasir di gurun sahara
Atau pun menakar timbangan air di palung samudera

Namun semua nya akan terbalaskan
Peluh dan perjuangan tak akan terasakan
Karena jika kita bertemu sang belahan jiwa pujaan hati
Semua itu melenyap layaknya untaian debu yang terkena semilir angin

Maka sambutlah rasa itu
Marilah kita berdendang
Dan semoga akan perasaan itu akan tetap menjulang tinggi
Hingga pendar mata kita memejam abadi

Sebuah Permainan Cinta

Dulu aku memujamu
Dan kau pun mengagumi ku
Kau lakukan semua kenginanku
Padahal sebenarnya kau tertipu

Kau berikan serpihan-serpihan pasir di padang gurun
Demi membangun fondasi bangunan cintamu
Kau pun mulai merangkai bulir - bulir untuk menyublim dogma
Padahal sebenernya aku cuma pura pura

Aku pura pura mencintai
Tak lebih dari sekedar terpaksa
Mempermainkan segala asa, cipta dan semua samudera impian mu
Menjerumuskanmu ke lembah duka dan nestapa
Dan membuat ketinggian malam mu dengan kerinduan yang memuncak

Kau merana
Aku tertawa
Kau berduka
Aku betapa senang tiada tara
-.-
nb :
- Puisi ini terinspirasi dari lagu yang di bawakan Utopia (Baby Doll)
- tuk Pinkan 1906 semoga kau senang membaca nya ^_^

Menghiba Jasad Temaram Pesona

Cahaya lampu taman itu berpendar
Binar nya menciptakan pandora di rerumputan
Semilir angin menyentuh mesra ujung - ujung pepohonan
Udara malam menelusup ke tepian tubuh ku

Kesempurnaan memang dambaan terindah setiap insan
Seolah memutarkan perumpaan gading yang tak retak
Menyelimuti
Beberapa helai kemunafikan

Mungkin masih ada
Seseorang yang menanti ku di tapal batas kerinduan
Menerima ku tanpa memandang kekurangan
Tanpa menghiba jasad temaram pesona
Dan dengan tulus se iklas sebuah kejujuran
Melewati bersama puing - puing cinta yang pernah meretak
untuk membangun sebidang benteng kasih sayang

Waktu terus merambat
Doaku ku pun mengabur seiring malam yang semakin memekat

Sebuah Ketulusan Cinta Yang Tak Mengenal Batasan Usia

Cinta ku padamu adalah sebuah rasa
Yang menghadir dari kedalaman sukma
Suci seputih helaian salju yang jatuh dari rarakan mega
Meluas seluas palung samudera dunia

Cinta ku padamu adalah deburan ombak
Yang deburannya bergelora menerjang bebatuan karang
Cinta ku padamu adalah kepingan bintang
Yang tak terhitung jumlah nya untuk melukiskan perasaan cinta ku

Oh juwita hati curahan jiwa ku
Mengapa batasan itu mengganggu linangan nurani mu
Mengapa usia yang hanyalah perbedaan pertama kali melihat keindahan dunia mengusik mu
Dan membuat kesucian cintaku memuai bersama buih buih embun pagi

Oh belahan hati ku
Cintaku adalah sebuah kemurnian yang tak terbataskan
Dan selalu akan mengabadi
Di setiap derap langkah kehidupan ku

Oh cinta ku
Bukan usia yang menjadi pembatas
Tapi kedewasaan pikiran dan tingkah laku
Merupakan penyeimbang menghadapi arus zaman

Semoga kau berbahagia
Doa ku akan selalu menyertai mu
Namun kehadiran mu akan selalu setia ku nanti
Hingga mataku memejam abadi
-.-
nb :
to ari : semoga pujaan hati mu mendengar linangan ketulusan hati mu. Take care yah bro ^_^

Seorang Gadis, Bibir Pantai Dan Sebuah Penantian

Di sebuah geladak pantai yang berteruhkan debu
Di antara nyiuran pohon kelapa yang melambai - lambai
Di pasir putih yang memantulkan kibasan cahaya matahari
Aku menunggu mu
-.-
Abang ......
Dulu kita pernah berjanji akan menggapai mimpi
Mendirikan benteng hati di gundukan bebatuan jiwa
Menyemainya lewat lautan asmara dewa
-.-
Wanita itu bergumam
Berseliweran memecah buih buih ombak
Menatap kosong pada kilauan siluet senja
Yang pendar cahaya nya menyepuh rarakan mega menjadi magenta
-.-
Abang ......
Batas penantian ku tak terbatas
Tak lekang di makan kubangan waktu
Tak terbilas oleh gerusan zaman
-.-
Wanita itu masih saja menunggu
Siang - malam menanti sang pujaan
Tak perduli tatapan setiap orang yang berlalu lalang
-.-
Abang .....
Aku akan setia menunggu mu pulang dari perantauan
-.-
Waktu terus berdetak
Tak terasa 30 purnama telah terlewatkan dengan sebuah penantian


nb : Di sebuah kota besar seorang laki - laki tidur mendengkur di pelukan isteri baru nya.

Tuhan Ajarilah Aku Menahan Kerinduan

Tuhan
Aku mahluk mu
Dengan sebening jiwa yang masih kotor ini
Ingin mengadu

Tuhan
Aku percaya takdir dari Mu
Aku percaya semua cobaan adalah ujian dari Mu

Tuhan
Kini aku sedang merindu
Merindukan seraut wajah yang kini tak mungkin lagi kumiliki

Tuhan
Aku tahu
Kau takkan menguji melewati batas kemampuan ku

Tuhan
Semoga kau tunjukan aku jalan
Menyusuri biduk biduk kehidupan

Sekeping Cinta Di Antara Tetesan Gerimis

Tempat ini pernah berkisah
Tentang kebersamaan kita
Berdua berteduh
Kala datang hujan yang menderas

Tempat ini adalah sebuah memori
Akan kisah kasih yang terilhami
Dan walau gulungan petir memekakan
Kita tetap berpegang tangan

Waktu yang merambat perlahan
Mematri nya menjadi kenangan

Ah kini benar - benar hanyalah baitan kenangan
Kubangan waktu dan sepenggalan jarak yang memisahkan

Dan di pagi hari ini
Aku susuri lagi tempat ini
Mencoba membuka kembali tabir memori
Akan kebersamaan dengan mu di antara tetesan gerimis pada masa silam

Ijinkahlah Aku Memasuki Puri Terdalam Hatimu

Ingin ku buka jantung langit
Lalu ku ukir rarakan mega
Untuk melukiskan cinta ku

Ingin ku selami palung samudera
Ku pahat semua terumbu karang
Untuk melukis wajah mu

Ingin ku susuri semua pantai daratan
Kan kugabungkan semua pasir di pesisir pantai
Lalu kubangun istana pasir sebagai benteng cinta ku

Maka ijinkanlah aku memasuki puri terdalam hati mu
Menyemai kasih merangkum asmara
Dan semoga kidung - kidung asmara ini
Tetap mengabadi sepanjang ombak berbuih

Menghilangkan Kerinduan Yang Tak Terobati

Bunga merakah di setaman hati
Menyemai harum ke dalam nurai
Kehangatan pendar sinar mentari
Menelusup sampai ke relung sanubari

Burung berkicau merdu melantunkan alunan
Sekelebat kerinduan pun kembali datang
Menyelusup ke titian embun embun pagi

Mungkin aku terlalu mengingkari
Berpura pura tegar untuk melupakan mu
Tak pernah rela untuk kehilangan mu

Oh tuhan
Tabahkan lah hati ini
Untuk mencoba menghapus kerinduan yang tak terobati

Mencari SeutaS Bayangan Dalam Kegelapan Malam

Ku coba berlari
Mencari Sebait mimpi yang pernah menghadir
Mencoba menjaring jiwa jiwa yang terdiam
Dan mendekamkan Sebuah linangan pertanyaan

Ku coba menguntaikan
SelakSa warna yang pernah tertuang
Menjalin Sepenggalan kiSah kenangan
Yang takkan lekang di hapuS kubangan waktu


Ku ingin berteriak
Mengungkapkan Sapta PeSona raSa
Agar Seraut wajah itu menghadir
MengiSi malam dengan bait kerinduan

Dan biarkan bayang itu
MengiSi ruang terdalam nurani
Merajut mimpi menuai miSteri
Dalam padang nirwana keindahan nuansa hati

Skesta Kisah Di Hari Pernikahanmu

Waktu kebersamaan yg pernah kita rajut
Lewat pahatan dan kisah terindah
Ribuan kenangan yang tak mudah melenyap di kubangan waktu

Waktu juga menilai
Seberapa besar pengorbanan dan penantian yang teramat menyesakkan
Namun terkadang ......
Semua impian - walau lewat perjuangan - kadangkala tak terwujudkan

Dan akhirnya prolog tercipta :

Aku menatap mu
Memakai gaun pengantin terindah
Senyummu merekah menyambut setiap tamu yang mendatangi mu
Dan aku mencoba menegarkan karang agar tak runtuh

Lalu mata kita saling menatap
Kau pun mulai salah tingkah dan mulai menjauh

Hati ku menjerit
Sebegitu hinakah aku sampai kau memalingkan muka mu

Namun wahai belahan jiwaku pententram hati ku
Selamanya aku takkan pernah membencimu
Karena cinta terkadang tak harus memiliki

Aku mengerti
Kenyataan menjadi pecundang adalah sebuah pilihan dalam kehidupan
Namun kekalahan bukanlah akhir
Karena masih ada sinar mentari esok yang penuh harapan

Semoga kau berbahagia
Semoga kau menemukan arti dari sebuah ke agungan cinta
Dan biarkan aku menyusuri
Jalan setapak berbatu yang kembali tak berpenghuni

Aku Mencintaimu Karena Kamu Adalah Cinta

Pernahkah kau melihat sisi terdalam dari palung hati ku ?
Akan kau jumpai pahatan rautan wajah mu yang telah mengkristal

Tahukan kau akan setiap harapan di ketinggian malam ku ?
Aku menyatu dalam setiap pendar bening bola mata mu

Mau juga kah kau mengerti gundah gulana ku ?
Ketika bayangmu selalu menghantui ku

semua,semuA,seMUA,sEMUA,SEMUA karena KAU, karena KAu, karena Kau

Kamu adalah belahan jiwa ku
Tempat ku bersandar dalam setiap letih penatku
Yang menyediakan sebilah bidang tempat ku berteduh ketika aku terpuruk

Maka biarkan rasa ini akan selalu bersemi
Memagari setiap hari ku dengan seutas senyum mu
Meski aku tahu pasti
Kau takkan mungkin aku miliki

Karena Cinta Adalah Cinta

Cinta adalah sebuah perasaan kerinduan
Datang menyergap di setiap ketinggian malam
Membuat badan panas dan kedinginan
Namun kita terlalu memujakan

Cinta adalah sebuah kejujuran
Tentang bahasa kalbu yg terungkap oleh helai tubuh
Tentang sebuah satiran yg terkena sembilu
Namun kita terlalu menginginkan

Namun Cinta terkadang membutakan
Melupakan akan akal pikiran
Melakukan hal - hal yang terkadang tak terperkirakan
Demi membahagiakan Sang pujaan

Cinta adalah sebuah pengkhianatan
Api cemburu yg terkadang terlalu mengekang kebebasan
Ataupun juga harga diri yg menyelimuti
Namun kita terlalu membutuhkan


Cinta adalah sebuah perasaan terdalam
Sebuah perasaan yang datang mengharu biru jiwa
Dan ketika kesucian cinta kau dapatkan
Kebahagian terkekal pun kau genggam

Cinta pun membuat mu menjadi seorang pujangga
Yang akan mungkin membuatmu membuat untaian puisi
Menggoreskan nya di jantung langit
Dengan meminjam warna pelangi
Untuk menggoreskan isi hati

Namun Cinta adalah sebuah anugerah terindah
Rahmat Sang pencipta kepada umatnya
Dan biarkan rasa itu mendekam pada setiap jiwa manusia
Karena cinta adalah cinta

Keindahan Persahabatan

Sahabat.....
Masihkah kau ingat saat-saat kebersamaan kita
Kala kita meremang senja
Disaat kita mencoba merajut jaring- jaring kehidupan

Sahabat.....
Pandanglah olehmu bentangan luas angkasa
Selamilah olehmu kedalaman laut samudera
Disana tergambar semua misteri lintang nebula
andromeda

Jabat tangan kebersamaan
Ketika kita berbagi rasa
Tanpa mengharapkan setitik nadir pamrih
Dan menjalaninya dengan kemurnian ketulusan

Suka dan duka yang terjadi
Gelap dan terang yang terlewati
Semuanya menitik buih
Keduanya mengkristal di antara kepingan diri

Saat-saat terindah yang tak akan terlupakan
Ketika kita hanyut dalam buaian
Kala kita mendapatkan sejuta impian
Dan bukan khayalan
Melainkan sebentuk kenyataan

Saat-saat kesedihan yang menghanyutkan
Tetapi kita menghadapinya dengan ketabahan
Kenapa bisa terjadi demikian ?
Karena kita
-AKU & KAMU- saling berpegang erat dan
menghimpun segenap kehangatan melalui pori - pori
kesabaran

Persabatan kita terlalu indah
Tak bisa dinilai dengan kegemilangan harta dunia
Persabatan kita selalu murni
Tak bisa di bohongi oleh topeng-topeng munafik yang
menikam nadi

Saling memberi
Saling menerima
Saling mengisi
Saling percaya

Persahabatan kita akan terus terjaga
Tak akan lekang di makan usia
Tak akan terburai oleh kubangan waktu
Dan akan selalu terpatri di sanubari
Hingga sang malaikat maut datang menghampiri